CSET Practice Test History Subtest I

The Kingdom of Kush (900 BCE-350 CE)

Kush, while not as glorious as Egypt in the building of
pyramids and temples, did eclipse Egypt in one area: the
manufacture of iron. 

The first African civilization after Egypt was built by an
Egyptianized people who lived between the Nile River's
first and third cataracts and spoke Nilo-Saharan
languages. This region around the first cataract, called
Nubia, had been conquered and colonized by Egypt in the
fourth millenium BC. Because of this, Egyptian
civilization diffused southward and a new African kingdom
was built up in the floodplain around the Nile's third
cataract: the Kush. Their capital city was Kerma and it
served as the major trading center for goods travelling
north from the southern regions of Africa. 

For a period of 1250 years (ending in 350 CE), the kingdom
of Kush flourished as a unique civilization which, beneath
an Egyptian façade, remained profoundly African. 

Kush attained its greatest power and cultural energy
between 1700 and 1500 BC during the Third Intermediate
period in Egypt. The domination of Egypt by the Hyksos
allowed Kush to come out from under the hegemony of Egypt
and flower as a culture; this period ended, however, when
the New Kingdom kings, having thrown the Hyksos out of
Egypt, reconquered Kush and brought it under Egyptian
colonial rule. 

However, when the New Kingdom collapsed in 1000 BC, Kush
again arose as a major power by conquering all of Nubia.
The conquest of upper Nubia, which had been in the hands
of the Egyptians since the fourth millenium, gave to Kush
wealthy gold mines. 

Following the reassertion of Kushite independence in 1000
BC, the Kushites moved their capital city farther up the
Nile to Napata. The Kushites by and large considered
themselves to be Egyptians and the proper inheritors of
the pharoanic titles and tradition. They organized their
society along Egyptian lines, assumed all the Egyptian
royal titles, and their architecture and art was based on
Egyptian architectural and artistic models. Their pyramids
were smaller and steeper and they introduced other
innovations as well, but the Napatan culture does not on
the surface appear much different than Egyptian culture. 

The Kushites even invaded and conquered Egypt in a
magnificent irony of history. The Napatan kings formed the
twenty-fifth pharaonic dyansty in the eighth century; this
dynasty came to an end with the Assyrian invasion of Egypt
in the seventh century BC. 

The Assyrians, and later the Persians, forced the Kushites
to retreat farther south. This retreat south eventually
closed off much of the contact that the Kushites had with
Egypt, the Middle East, and Europe. When Napata was
conquered in 591, the Kushites moved their capital to
Meroe right in the heart of the Kushite kingdom. Because
of their relative isolation from the Egyptian world, the
Meroitic empire turned its attention to the sub-Saharan
world. For most of its prosperous life, the Meroitic
empire served as the middle term in the trade of African
goods to northern Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.
While it still continued the cultural traditions of
pharoanic Egypt, the Meroites developed newer forms of
culture and art because of their isolation from the
northern kingdoms. 

Many of these innovations occurred in the realm of
government. Unlike pharoanic Egypt, the king ruled through
a customary law that was established and interpreted by
priests. The king was also elected, but he was elected
from the royal family. As in Egypt, descent was reckoned
through the mother's line. Eventually, however, this
descent model produced a series of monarchs who were
women, an innovation not seen in any other major
civilization. 

The Kushite religion closely resembled Egyptian religion.
It was polytheistic and contained all the major Egyptian
gods. Amon was the principal god, but as in Egyptian
religion, Meroitic religion involved regional gods which
were served as principal gods in their region. There are
some non-Egyptian gods, such as a lion warrior god, which
the Meroites probably derived from southern African
cultures, but these gods were few.

The kingdom of Kush, with its capital at Meroë, flourished
as an independent civilization for two or three centuries
after Egypt's decline. But by the middle of the 1st
century AD this Meroitic civilization was itself in
decline and overshadowed already by a rival trading empire
based on Aksum in the Ethiopian highlands. The Aksum
Empire overthrew Kush in the 4th century, burning Meroë
and driving the ruling elites of Kush to the west, to
Kordofan and Darfur, where they were able to recreate the
elements of their civilization, and eventually extended
their influence as far as Lake Chad.

The History of Mesoamerica 

From ancient times, the diversity of climate and of
natural products in Mesoamerica led to the development of
a commercial and cultural exchange between distant areas.
Although each Mesoamerican civilization had its own
characteristics, trade, migrations and military
expeditions spread the influence of the most advanced
cultures. 

Certain customs, beliefs and working methods were
therefore common to all the peoples of Mesoamerica. 

From ancient times, the diversity of climate and of
natural products in Mesoamerica led to the development of
a commercial and cultural exchange between distant areas.
Although each Mesoamerican civilization had its own
characteristics, trade, migrations and military
expeditions spread the influence of the most advanced
cultures. Certain customs, beliefs and working methods
were therefore common to all the peoples of Mesoamerica. 

The evolution of the Mesoamerican civilizations is long
and complicated. In order to help us understand this
history, specialists have divided it into three periods,
in which the people of the region shared more or less the
same level of cultural development. 

These periods are: 

The Formative or Preclassic period ranges from 1800 BC,
when the first permanent agricultural settlements were
established, to 200 AD. The Classic period goes from 200
to 800 AD. This is the period of splendor of many
independent cities (which is why we call them city-States,
like the Greek cities), where the great ceremonial centers
were built. The Postclassic period lasted from 800 AD, up
until the arrival of the Spaniards. At the beginning of
this period, the most important cities of Mesoamerica were
abandoned or destroyed. Others were founded and the great
Mexica empire finally emerged; by the time Europe and
America came into contact at the start of the 16th
century, the Mexicas dominated a large part of
Mesoamerica. 

Formative or Preclassic Period (1800 BC - 200 AD) The
First Civilization

During the first decades of this century, Mexican
anthropologists discovered that beneath the great Classic
period ceremonial centers like Teotihuacan and those of
the Maya zone, there were even more ancient remains. The
oldest cultural period was therefore called the
Preclassic. We now know that during this formative period,
which lasted at least 2,000 years, there was a gradual
evolution from the agrarian villages to the first great
civilization of Mesoamerica, the Olmec culture.

The population of Mesoamerica grew so quickly during the
Preclassic period that some historians speak of a corn
producing larger cobs.

Many places in Mexico were inhabited from the beginning of
the Preclassic period. There are not many remains of
buildings dating from this period, because they were
generally made from wood, palm leaves and other materials
that have not stood the test of time. 

The ancient Mesoamericans believed in an afterlife where
the spirits of the dead dwelt. We know this because their
tombs show that they buried their dead with objects they
might need in their other lives. These objects consisted
of jewels, vases, toys and clay figurines. There was also
a primitive religion involving the worship of natural
phenomena such as the sun, the rain and the fertility of
the land.

Societies were divided into various groups: the governors,
who were also priests and warrior chieftains; and the
artisans and peasants who comprised the majority of the
people. The latter worked the land, built public works and
fought as soldiers during the wars. Agricultural work was
done by groups and harvests were shared among the
different families. 

Techniques advanced quickly. Cloth, ropes, nets, baskets
and other articles were all woven. Work in stone and clay
reached a high level of perfection. Aside from the Olmec
civilization, the first stages of other great cultures
developed in Mesoamerica during the Preclassic period.
This took place in various regions: in the Maya, zone, in
the Zapotec area, in the western region and on the
Highland Plateau.

Classic Period (200 - 800 AD) The development of great
urban civilizations began around the year 200 BC in
various regions of Mesoamerica, As the ceremonial centers
multiplied, so the arts and sciences attained an
impressive splendor. This is the period in which the Maya,
Zapotec, Teotihuacan and other civilizations flourished.
At this time, social organization became more complicated.
Together with the warrior-priests, there were officials
involved with the task of imparting justice and collecting
tribute; there were also traders who traveled long
distances and highly specialized artisans. Religion was
situated at the very center of daily life, around which
all other activities revolved. 

The amazing ceremonial centers of this period, their
temples and pyramids, tombs and palaces, give us an idea
as to the great importance of religion in the societies of
the Classic period. The construction of these ceremonial
centers was intended to win favor with the gods, who,
according to the beliefs of these peoples, governed the
life of mankind and the cycles of nature. 

During this period, progress was also made in sciences
such as mathematics and astronomy; complicated writing
systems were developed and herbalists engaged in the in-
depth study of the beneficial or harmful properties of
plants. Techniques for working stone and molding clay
reached their peak; the walls of ceremonial centers were
covered with paintings and reliefs. Although the peoples
of Mesoamerica shared similar art forms, each group
developed a particular artistic style. 

Teotihuacan was the oldest and most influential
civilization of the Classic period. 

The Maya Classic period  

This civilization occupied an extensive region covering
the present-day Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche,
Quintana Roo, Tabasco and Chiapas, as well as a large part
of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador.

At the height of the Classic period, the heart of the Maya
zone was encompassed by a triangle formed by Palenque
(Chiapas), Tikal (Guatemala) and Copán (Honduras). A large
population lived in this area and practiced agriculture by
burning the forest to take advantage of humid lands of
volcanic origin. 

The Maya created an advanced writing system, which over
the course of recent decades, has gradually been
deciphered. Writing was used to register the warlike feats
of the governors, to keep track of time and for religious
purposes. 

The movement of the planets and time measurement greatly
interested the Maya. They developed an extremely accurate
calendar, which was not only used for measuring time, but
also for predicting dates, that, according to their
beliefs, would be fortunate or unlucky for the people. 

Maya astronomers used numeric symbols representing the
units of 1 to 4, and groups of 5 units for their
calculations. Since they gave figures a value according to
their position and also used zero, they were able to make
very intricate calculations. 

The Maya interest in time is reflected in a large number
of carved stelae. These large stone slabs were set
vertically; they commemorated special dates and are one of
the best sources of information available to historians. 

At the end of the Classic period, the Maya cities
underwent a tremendous catastrophe and were abandoned.

After the fall of the southern cities, a new and brilliant
stage of the Maya culture developed in the northern part
of the Yucatán peninsula, above all at the cities of
Chichén Itzá, Uxmal and Mayapán. 

The Zapotecs Classic period 

From very early times, the Zapotecs settled in the central
valleys of the state of Oaxaca. They built dams and
irrigation channels, and developed a very varied
agriculture, which at the beginning of the Classic period
sustained numerous villages. The heart of this zone was
the ceremonial center of Monte Albán. 

Monte Albán was built in a mountain range overlooking
valleys. It is a complex of pyramids and platforms
surrounding an enormous esplanade, where there is also an
extraordinary astronomical observatory. Monte Albán was
dedicated to the cult of mysterious gods and to the
celebration of the military victories of the Zapotec
people.

Together with the Maya, the Zapotecs were the only people
of the time to develop a complete writing system combining
the representation of ideas and sounds. This writing has
only been partially deciphered. 

Around the year 800, and like other cities of the Classic
period, the splendor of Monte Albán ended abruptly. The
Zapotec culture continued in the valleys of Oaxaca, and,
centuries later, the Mixtecs living in the northern
sierras and to the east of Monte Albán, invaded the
valleys and began a long struggle with the Zapotecs.

The Mixtecs formed their own religious centers. They
developed colorful ceramics and created very beautiful
codexes that tell the story of the great lords of their
domain.

Teotihuacan Classic period  

The City of the Gods When the Aztecs arrived on the
Highland Plateau at the beginning of the 14th century,
they came across an enormous and abandoned religious
center which they named Teotihuacan. They were so
impressed by the grandeur of this.    

It is hard to believe that this was built by a people who
did not know metal tools, had no beasts of burden, and did
not use even simple machines to aid them in their
constructions.

Teotihuacan is situated in a large valley, 45 kilometers
from Mexico City. Although the area was populated from the
very earliest times, the construction of the ceremonial
center did not begin until around 100 BC. The center was
built in stages, yet the harmony and functionality of its
distribution would lead us to believe that it was planned
as a complex. 

The ceremonial zone of Teotihuacan was surrounded by a
great urban concentration, which, according to
researchers, had between 125 thousand and 250 thousand
inhabitants during its peak, and covered an area of 20
square kilometers. 

A certain degree of doubt surrounds the origin of settlers
in the region. However, some specialists believe that the
people of Teotihuacan belonged to the same racial group
from which the Toltecs and Mexicas would later emerge.  

The ceremonial complex is formed by two great pyramids,
known as the pyramids of the Sun and of the Moon, together
with temples, platforms and residential buildings
distributed along both sides of the long Causeway of the
Dead. The main building, the Pyramid of the Sun, measures
215 meters on each side, making its base similar in size
to that of the largest Egyptian pyramid.

The residential area of the city has been researched by
archeologists who believe that the houses were large and
made of stone, adobe and wood. Since these houses had many
rooms, it would seem that they were occupied by large
families with many members engaged in the same trade. At
Teotihuacan, the gods are depicted in paintings and
sculptures, and, with different names, were later
worshipped by other Mesoamerican peoples. These deities
included the gods of rain and water, the Sun and Moon, and
the plumed serpent known as Quetzalcóatl by the Aztecs,
who, according to legend, gave mankind science and wisdom.

Postclassic Period (800 AD +) Postclassic Period 

The Postclassic or historical period began around the year
800 and ended in 1521 when the Spaniards took the capital
of the Aztec empire. 

The Postclassic period was characterized by the invasion
of Mesoamerica when the northern semi-nomadic peoples came
down from the vast area of Arid America. These peoples
settled in Mesoamerica, where they mixed with the ancient
settlers and assimilated many elements of the cultures of
the Classic period. Over time, they would build a new
civilization which was comparable with the most advanced
cultures of the American continent. 

During this period, techniques were developed to smelt and
work with metals such as gold, silver and copper. These
techniques were invented in the Andean region and were
probably brought to Mesoamerica by the traders who sailed
up and down the Pacific coasts. Although the peoples of
the Postclassic period were wonderful artisans, they did
not use metals for practical purposes, but rather for the
creation of jewels and decorations. The Toltec
civilization was important during this period. 

The Aztecs Postclassic period

Around the year 1300, the Aztecs were the last tribe to
arrive in Mesoamerica from the arid northern region. They
were a poor and backward people and were not well received
by the inhabitants of Toltec origin who had settled in the
Valley of Mexico.

Legend has it that the Aztecs wandered for many years in
search of a sign, an eagle and a serpent fighting on a
cactus, to show them where to found their city.

They began their travels in Aztlán (in Náhuatl, The Place
of the Herons, or The Place of Whiteness), without
managing to settle even on the poorest lands of the
Valley. Finally, in 1325, they founded their city, Mexico-
Tenochtitlan. 

Once they had settled, the Aztecs lived for several
decades under the dominion of the powerful lord of
Azcapotzalco, whom they served as paid soldiers.

By 1430, the Aztecs had assimilated the features of the
most advanced cultures in the Valley and had become an
efficient military power. They then attacked and defeated
Azcapotzalco and became one of the most powerful peoples
of the region. They later began a surprising military
campaign, which in just 70 years, would make their domain
the largest empire that had ever existed in Mesoamerica.

The Aztecs formed an alliance with the lords of Texcoco
and Tacuba and created what is known as the Triple
Alliance. Under the command of outstanding military
leaders like Moctezuma Ilhuiamina and Ahuitzotl, the
Aztecs conquered the center of Mexico, Veracruz, the coast
of Guerrero, part of Oaxaca, and dominated the Soconusco
territory on the border with Guatemala. Only a few peoples
managed to resist the force of the Mexicas: the
Purépechas, the Tlaxcaltecas and certain Mixtec lords. 

The Toltecs Postclassic period 

Towards the end of the Classic period, various waves of
northern invaders came to Mesoamerica. One of these was
the Purepecha or Tarascan people who settled around the
lakes of the modern-day state of Michoacán. However, of
all the recently-arrived groups, the most important was
the Toltec people of Tula.

The invading Toltecs mixed with the people living in the
valleys of the present-day state of Hidalgo and, around
the year 1050, transformed Tula into a great city, the
capital of an empire which dominated the center of Mexico
and spread its influence to very distant areas. 

At the height of its splendor, Tula had around 40 thousand
inhabitants who practiced agriculture by means of small
systems of dams and canals, since rain was scarce in the
area. It would seem that related families built their
houses next to one another and separated them from the
outside world with walls.

The ceremonial center of Tula has pyramids, rooms and ball
courts. The site is characterized by the great warrior
figures known as Atlantes. The macabre tzompantli, a wall
on which the heads of sacrifice victims were hung, was
built here for the first time.

Among the Toltecs, war took on a greater significance than
it had for the cultures of the Classic period.
Professional soldiers appeared in Tula, and were organized
in sects or brotherhoods that identified them with certain
animals: eagle, jaguar or coyote warriors. Evidence also
shows that the number of human sacrifices increased; this
was especially the case when prisoners of war were taken.
This militaristic spirit was a characteristic of all the
cultures of the Postclassic period. 

Not only did the Toltecs spread their influence by means
of war, but also through trade. In Tula, as in
Teotihuacan, they worked obsidian and made ceramics. Their
artisans were famous for producing the most beautiful and
complicated objects in Mesoamerica.

It would seem that Tula ended in a way similar to
Teotihuacan. Around the year 1170, the city and its
ceremonial center were ransacked and partially destroyed.
Nevertheless, the influence of the Toltecs lived on in
various places. The most noteworthy example of the Toltec
influence is found at Chichén Itzá, Yucatán, a site
located more than 1,000 kilometers from Tula, and where
the architecture and religious representations bear an
extraordinary resemblance to those of the Toltec capital. 

Source: SEP, Department of Education.