CSET Practice Test History Subtest I

Arabian Civilization

The Arab world stretches some 5,000 miles-nearly twice the
distance between New York and San Francisco-from the
Atlantic coast of northem Africa in the west to the
Arabian Sea in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in
the north to Central Africa in the south. It covers an
area of 5.25 million square miles, compared to the 3.6
million square miles of the United States.

With seventy-two percent of its territory in Africa and
twenty eight percent in Asia, the Arab world straddles two
continents, a position that has made it one of the world's
most strategic regions. Long coastlines give it access to
vital waterways: the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean
Sea, the Arabian Gulf, the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Men,
the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. While the Arab world is
dominated by dry climatic conditions, the existence of
mountain ranges permits seasonal rainfall. The Atlas range
in northwest Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) forms a
barrier between the Sahara Desert and the coastal areas.
Other important mountain systems are the Lebanon and Anti-
Lebanon ranges and the Zagros Mountains to the east of
Iraq.

Given the preponderance of arid conditions, reliable
sources of water are immensely important-be they springs,
from which oases are formed, or rivers. Foremost among the
river valleys are the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates.

The population of the Arab world-approximately 150
million-is a youthful one. Almost half of the population
is under fifteen years of age. Given the current annual
rate of increase, the population will be approximately 280
million by the year 2000.

The concept of average population density has little
meaning when applied to the Arab world. Since significant
human settlement is found only where water supplies are
adequate, the overwhelming majority of Arabs lives in
relatively high concentrations along coastal areas and
major river valleys. The most striking example of this is
Egypt, where more than ninety percent of the population
lives on less than five percent of the land. 

Agriculture is the primary economic activity in the Arab
world. The most important food crops are wheat, barley,
rice, maize and millet. These are largely consumed within
the region, while cotton, sugarcane, sugar beets and
sesame are exported as cash crops.

The distribution of petroleum and natural gas is highly
localized, so that the Arab countries which possess these
resources are relatively few. Other natural resources
include iron, ore, lead, phosphate, cobalt and manganese.
The Arab world is the region where man first moved into a
settled form of society, cultivating grain and raising
livestock, establishing cities and promoting diverse
skills and occupations. In such a setting, rich and
complex cultures were nourished: ancient Egypt, Sumer,
Assyria, Babylonia and Phoenicia were great civilizations,
legends even in their own day, whose traces continue to be
uncovered in archeological sites throughout the region.

It was in this same area that the three great monotheistic
religions-Judaism, Christianity and Islam-were
established, in time spreading to all corners of the
world. The followers of those faiths lived in harmony
throughout the centuries in the Arab world, since all
considered themselves the children of one God.

The Prophet Muhammad appeared in the seventh century,
A.D., carrying the message of Islam. His Arab followers
soon spread the new faith in the West, across North Africa
into Spain and France, and in the East, to the borders of
China. But these Muslim believers were not merely
conquerors. They rapidly established a new and dynamic
civilization that for centuries was the only bright light
in an otherwise culturally and intellectually stagnant
world. Indeed, while Europe was experiencing its "Dark
Ages," the Arab/Islamic empire was at its apogee. It was
the same Islamic civilization, with its many contributions
to science and the humanities, that paved the way for the
rise of the West to its present prominence. 

The Arab world today is a rich composite of many and
diverse influences. Various ethnic, linguistic and
religious groups inhabit the region. Yet, Islam and the
Arabic language constitute its two predominant cultural
features. The Arab people, spread over a vast area, enjoy
common bonds of history and tradition. Members of twenty-
two different countries, the Arabs consider themselves to
be part of one nation.

The Arab people are further united through their
membership and participation in the League of Arab States.
One of the oldest regional organizations in the world, the
Arab League was founded on March 22, 1945, even before the
formal establishment of the United Nations. The primary
objectives of the Arab League, as it is commonly called,
are maximum integration among the Arab countries through
coordination of their activities in the political sphere
as well as in the fields of economics, social services,
education, communications, development, technology and
industrialization.

The headquarters of the Arab League is in Tunis, Tunisia,
which also hosts some of the League's specialized
agencies-some of which are based in other Arab capitals.
The twenty-two member states of the League, in
alphabetical order, are: Algeria, Bahrain, [Djibouti,
Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania,
Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia,
Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Arab
Republic and Yemen Peoples Democratic Republic.

The Arab world in the twentieth century is a region in
transition-developing, modernizing and building the
foundation for its own renaissance. Its great and ancient
cities-Cairo, Damascus and Baghdad-with populations well
into the millions, are rapidly expanding their municipal
services, communications and other facilities. New
construction is evident everywhere as high-rise buildings
replace the covered bazaars of former times.

Those Arab countries with natural resources, especially
petroleum, are devoting large funds to development
programs in nearly every field while, at the same time,
providing their less fortunate sister states with
financial assistance to help them modernize. Scores of
thousands of young Arabs are studying in old and new
universities in their own countries or abroad,
particularly in the United States where there are an
estimated 60,000 Arab students. They are specializing in
professions and disciplines which will enhance the
progress of their homeland.

With all of this development and modernization, the Arab
world is also determined to preserve its traditions and
values, largely rooted in Islam. Its people are reaching
out for progress but without the dislocation that so often
accompanies rapid change.

While the great urban centers of the Arab world are
reaping the benefits of the space age, including satellite
communications with other parts of the world, many retain
the flavor of the past in architecture, arts and
traditions.

In sum, the Arabs today are still drawing cultural
sustenance from their great past, fueling their efforts to
move on into the future.

Since the seventh century, A.D., the culture of the Arab
world has been dominated by the last of the three great
monotheistic religions to have emerged from that region:
Islam. Islam, faith of the vast majority of Arabs, is more
than just a religion; it is the focal point of Arab
society for Muslims and non-Muslims alike permeating that
culture at every level-political, social, economic, as
well as private. To appreciate the enormous force of Islam
in the Arab world, one must understand the basic tenets of
the faith, how it emerged and grew.

Islam originated in the Arabian Peninsula, present-day
Saudi Arabia in 622 A.D. According to Islamic tradition,
God (Allah) conveyed to Muhammad, a tradesman, a series of
revelations which were to form the basis of the new faith.
Islam means submission-submission to the will of God; a
Muslim, in turn, is one who has submitted to Allah and who
acknowledges Muhammad as His prophet.

Muslims consider Muhammad to be the last in a series of
prophets which included Abraham, Moses and Jesus, to whom
God revealed His Divine Message. Islamic tradition, in
fact, takes into account the doctrines of both Judaism and
Christianity which preceded it; for example, Muslims
believe, as do both Jews and Christians, in one God and in
an afterlife. Islam also acknowledges Jews and Christians
as "people of the Book" (ahl alkitab), "the Book" meaning
the Bible, and grants them privileged status from the
early days of the Islamic empire into modern times. For
this reason, religious minorities throughout the Arab
world have survived and flourished during periods of
severe cultural and religious repression elsewhere.

The body of revelation which Allah delivered to Muhammad
through the Angel Gabriel is contained in the Qur 'an, the
holy book of Islam. The Qur 'an, written in Arabic, the
language of Allah's divine transmission, provides the
Muslim believer with all he or she needs to know to lead a
good and pious life. In addition to its obvious religious
significance, the revelation of the Qur'an represents the
crowning literary achievement of the Arabic language. It
has been both an immeasurable influence on the development
of Arabic literature and an inspiration for all branches
of literature and scholarship. Islamic acts of devotion
and worship are expressed in the Five Pillars of Islam.
These involve, not only profession of faith, but also,
recognition of God in all aspects of human conduct.

While most people know that Arabic is the written and
spoken language of more than a million inhabitants of the
Arab world, few realize that the Arabic script is also
used by one-seventh of the world's population.

Millions of people in Africa and Asia write their
languages in the Arabic alphabet. Farsi-the language of
lran- and Urdu-the language of Pakistan and some parts of
India-are written in the Arabic script. The Turkish
language employed Arabic characters until the 1920's. In
addition, Arabic script is used today in Afghanistan,
Indonesia, Malaysia, sections of China and even in the
Muslim areas of the Philippines and the USSR.

The reason for the extensive use of Arabic dates back to
the emergence of the Islamic faith in 622 A.D. The Qur'an,
the Holy Book of Islam, was revealed to the Prophet
Muhammad and subsequently, recorded in Arabic. Thus, for
the Muslim Arab of that time, as well as today, his
language and the language of God (Allah) are identical.
Arabic remains the primary vehicle for prayer in Islam.

As the new believers, or Muslims, spread out from the
Arabian Peninsula to create a vast empire-first with its
capital in Damascus and, later, in Baghdad-Arabic became
the administrative language of vast sections of the
civilized world. It drew upon Byzantine and Persian terms
and its own immense inner resources of vocabulary and
grammatical flexibility. By the eleventh century, A.D.,
this language was the common medium of expression from
Persia to the Pyrenees-the language of kings and
commoners, poets and princes, scholars and scientists.
Arabic became the principal reservoir of human knowledge,
including the repository for the accumulated wisdom of
past ages, supplanting previous cultural languages, such
as Greek and Latin. 

Arabic belongs to the Semitic family of languages, of
which Hebrew is also a member; thus, the term "Semite,"
referring to anyone who speaks a Semitic tongue. Arabic
script reads from right to left and its alphabet contains
twenty-eight characters. While it is universally written,
read and understood in its classical form, spoken Arabic
has undergone regional or dialectical variations.

The Arabic language developed through the early centuries
in what is today Saudi Arabia until, in the era
immediately preceding the appearance of Islam, it acquired
the form in which it is known today. Arab poets of the
pre-Islamic, or Jahiliyyah period, had developed a
language of amazing richness and flexibility, despite the
fact that many were desert bedouins (nomads) with little
or no formal education. For the most part, their poetry
was transmitted and preserved orally. The Arabic language
was then, as it is now, easily capable of creating new
words and terminology in order to adapt to the demands of
new scientific and artistic discoveries.

As the Empire spread, the Arabic language-and, indeed,
culture-was enriched by contacts with other civilizations:
Greeks, Persians; Copts, Romans, Indians and Chinese.
During the ninth and tenth centuries, a great translation
movement, centered in Baghdad, was in force, in which many
ancient scientific and philosophical tracts were
transposed from ancient languages, especially Greek into
Arabic. Many were enhanced by the new wisdom suggested by
Arab thinkers; other texts were simply preserved; only to
re-merge in Europe during the Renaissance.

Modern European languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese,
French, Italian and English owe a great debt to Arabic.
The English language itself contains many words borrowed
from Arabic: algebra, alchemy, admiral, genius, ghoul,
mare, sherbet, soda and many others. 

The Prophet Muhammad said "it is the duty of every Muslim
man and woman to seek education," and under his influence,
the Arabs were encouraged to pursue knowledge for its own
sake. Fulfilling the duty to pursue knowledge gave Muslims
a head-start in education. Among the early elementary
educational institutions were the mosque schools which
were founded by the Prophet himself; he sat in the mosque
surrounded by a haiqa (circle) of listeners, intent on his
instructions. Muhammad also sent teachers to the various
tribes to instruct their members in the Qur'an.

The formal pursuit of knowledge had existed in one form or
another since the time of the Greeks. The Arabs translated
and preserved not only the teachings of the Greeks but
those of the Indians and the Persians as well. More
importantly, they used these basic teachings as a starting
point from which to launch a mass revolution in education
beginning during the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 A.D.).

During the Abbasid period, thousands of mosque schools
were established throughout the Arab empire and the
subjects of study were increased to include hadith (the
science of tradition), fiqh (ju-risprudence), philology,
poetry, rhetoric and others. In tenth century Baghdad
alone there were an estimated  3,000 mosques. Fourteenth
century Alexandria had some 12,000 mosques, all of which
played an important role in education.

In the mosque school, the teacher sat on a cushion and
leaned against a column or wall as his students sat around
him listening and taking notes. Only Muslirns were allowed
to attend the Qur 'an or hadiih sessions, but non-Muslims
could attend all other subjects. There was no age limit,
nor were there any restrictions on women attending
classes.

Historians such as Ibn Khallikan reported that women also
taught classes in which men took lessons. Few westerners
recognize the extent to which Arab women contributed to
the social, economic and political life of the empire.
Arab women excelled in medicine, mysticism, poetry,
teaching, and oratory and even took active roles in
military conflicts. Current misconceptions are based on
false stereotypes of Arab life and culture popularized by
some journalists and "Orientalists."

In the mosque schools, rich and poor alike attended
classes freely. Classes were held at specific times and
announced in advance by the teacher. 

Students could attend several classes a day, sometimes
traveling from one mosque to another. Teachers were
respected by their students and there were formal, if
unwritten, rules of behavior. laughmg, talking, joking or
disrespectful behavior of any kind were not permitted.

Different teachers used various methods of instruction.
Some preferred to teach from a text first and then to
answer questions. Others allowed student assistants to
read or elaborate upon the instructor's theories while the
teachers themselves remained available to comment or
answer questions. Still others taught without the benefit
of texts.

In 1066 A.D., Nizam al-Mulk, a Seljuk vizier, founded the
Nizamiyya Madrasa in Baghdad which became the forerunner
of secondary/college level education in the Arab empire.
Madrasas had existed long before Nizam al-Mulk, but his
contribution was the popularization of this type of
school. The madrasa gave rise to various universities in
the Arab empire and became the prototype of several early
European universities. Founded in 969 A.D., AI-Azhar
University in Cairo preceded other universities in Europe
by two centuries. Today it attracts students from all over
the world. The madrasas, which literally mean "places for
learning," were the beginning of departmentalized schools
where education was available to all. The physical
construction of the madrasas provided student dormitories.
Each madrasa, depending on its location, had a specific
curriculum. The subjects taught were the religious
sciences (.e.g, the study of the Qur'an, hadith,
jurisprudence and grammar) and the intellectual sciences
(e.g. mathematics, astronomy, music and physics). As these
schools began to attract distinguished teachers and
specialists from all corners of the Arab empire, the
number of disciplines increased. Teachers received
substantial salaries and scholarships and pensions were
available for students. Funds for operation of the
madrasas came from both the government and private
contributions. Since the government played an important
role in promoting these institutions, the subject matter,
choice of teachers and allocation of funds were closely
supervised and regulated.

The development of the madrasa evolved from the various
elementary and secondary schools which were prevalent in
the Abbasid empire: the mosque school and other
traditional institutions; makiabot, or libraries, which
originated in the preIslamic Arab world; tutoring houses,
palace schools haiqa, discussion groups in the homes of
Muslim scholars; and the library salons in the palaces of
wealthy men and courtiers who were patrons of learning and
scholarship. In addition, there were the majaits or
meetings which were presided over by learned men at
various social institutions and private homes. The majalis
covered a wide range of topics and subjects. In the
current revivals of traditional Islam, many of these "old"
institutions and customs are being resuscitated.

Traveling to other cities to seek knowledge under the
direction of different masters was a common practice in
the early centuries of Islam. From Kurasan to Egypt, to
West Mrica and Spain, and from the northern provinces to
those in the south, students and teachers journeyed to
attend classes and discuss social, political, religious,
philosophical and scientific matters. The custom was later
popularized in Europe during the Renaissance.

Academies began to emerge in the eighth century, serving
as centers for the translation of earlier works and for
innovative research. Each academy provided rooms for
classes, meetings and readings. The Bay: al-Hikma of the
Caliph al-Ma 'mum (813-833 A. D.) and the Dar a!- 'fim of
Cairo founded by al-Hakim (996-1021 A.D.) are the most
notable. Books were coUceted from all over the world to
create monumental libraries that housed volumes on
medicine, philosophy, mathematics, science, alchemy,
logic, astronomy and many other subjects. 

Along with the introduction of paper and textbooks in the
eighth century came the antecedent of "teacher
certification." An instructor would give his permission to
competent students to teach from one or all of his
textbooks. Because of this practice, an individual could
have an ijazah to teach a subject although he himself
might be a student in another class. Consequently, the
distinction between teacher and student was often
minimized.

In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, as Arab influence
spread to Spain, Sicily and the rest of Europe, Europeans
became increasingly aware of Arab advancements in many
fields, especially education and science. Books were
translated from Arabic into Latin and, later, to
vernacular languages. European schools which had long
limited learning to the "seven liberal arts" began to
expand their curricula.

For some five hundred years, Arab learning and scholarship
played a major role in the development of education in the
West. The Arabs brought with them well developed
techniques in translation and research and opened new
vistas in areas of medicine, the physical sciences and
mathematics. Application of empiricism in all fields of
study was rapidly incorporated into the learning system of
those who became familiar with Arab methodology. Long
before the popularization of the phrase "transfer of
technology," a term used to describe advanced expertise
which developed nations offer to Third World countries,
the Arabs shared their accumulated knowledge and
institutions with the rest of the world.

The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union

Before the Constitution....there was The Articles of
Confederation– in effect, the first constitution of the
United States. Drafted in 1777 by the same Continental
Congress that passed the Declaration of Independence, the
articles established a "firm league of friendship" between
and among the 13 states. 

Created during the throes of the Revolutionary War, the
Articles reflect the wariness by the states of a strong
central government. Afraid that their individual needs
would be ignored by a national government with too much
power, and the abuses that often result from such power,
the Articles purposely established a "constitution" that
vested the largest share of power to the individual
states. 

Under the Articles each of the states retained their
"sovereignty, freedom and independence." Instead of
setting up executive and judicial branches of government,
there was a committee of delegates composed of
representatives from each state. These individuals
comprised the Congress, a national legislature called for
by the Articles. 

The Congress was responsible for conducting foreign
affairs, declaring war or peace, maintaining an army and
navy and a variety of other lesser functions. But the
Articles denied Congress the power to collect taxes,
regulate interstate commerce and enforce laws.

Eventually, these shortcomings would lead to the adoption
of the U.S. Constitution. But during those years in which
the 13 states were struggling to achieve their independent
status, the Articles of Confederation stood them in good
stead. 

Adopted by Congress on November 15, 1777, the Articles
became operative on March 1, 1781 when the last of the 13
states signed on to the document.

The ARTICLES of CONFEDERATION and PERPETUAL UNION 

Between The States Of 


New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay Rhode Island and
Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. ARTICLE I The Stile
of this Confederacy shall be "The United States of
America". 

II Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and
independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right,
which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to
the United States, in Congress assembled. 

III The said States hereby severally enter into a firm
league of friendship with each other, for their common
defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual
and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each
other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon
them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty,
trade, or any other pretense whatever. 

IV The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship
and intercourse among the people of the different States
in this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these
States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice
excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and
immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the
people of each State shall free ingress and regress to and
from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the
privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same
duties, impositions, and restrictions as the inhabitants
thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions
shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of
property imported into any State, to any other State, of
which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also that no
imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any
State, on the property of the United States, or either of
them. 

If any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony,
or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from
justice, and be found in any of the United States, he
shall, upon demand of the Governor or executive power of
the State from which he fled, be delivered up and removed
to the State having jurisdiction of his offense. 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these
States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of
the courts and magistrates of every other State. 

V For the most convenient management of the general
interests of the United States, delegates shall be
annually appointed in such manner as the legislatures of
each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first
Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved
to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at
any time within the year, and to send others in their
stead for the remainder of the year. 

No State shall be represented in Congress by less than
two, nor more than seven members; and no person shall be
capable of being a delegate for more than three years in
any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a
delegate, be capable of holding any office under the
United States, for which he, or another for his benefit,
receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind. 

Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting
of the States, and while they act as members of the
committee of the States. 

In determining questions in the United States in Congress
assembled, each State shall have one vote. 

Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be
impeached or questioned in any court or place out of
Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected
in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the
time of their going to and from, and attendence on
Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the
peace. 

VI No State, without the consent of the United States in
Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive
any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement,
alliance or treaty with any King, Prince or State; nor
shall any person holding any office of profit or trust
under the United States, or any of them, accept any
present, emolument, office or title of any kind whatever
from any King, Prince or foreign State; nor shall the
United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant
any title of nobility. 

No two or more States shall enter into any treaty,
confederation or alliance whatever between them, without
the consent of the United States in Congress assembled,
specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is
to be entered into, and how long it shall continue. 

No State shall lay any imposts or duties, which may
interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into
by the United States in Congress assembled, with any King,
Prince or State, in pursuance of any treaties already
proposed by Congress, to the courts of France and Spain. 

No vessel of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any
State, except such number only, as shall be deemed
necessary by the United States in Congress assembled, for
the defense of such State, or its trade; nor shall any
body of forces be kept up by any State in time of peace,
except such number only, as in the judgement of the United
States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to
garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such
State; but every State shall always keep up a well-
regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and
accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready
for use, in public stores, a due number of filed pieces
and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and
camp equipage. 

No State shall engage in any war without the consent of
the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State
be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received
certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation
of Indians to invade such State, and the danger is so
imminent as not to admit of a delay till the United States
in Congress assembled can be consulted; nor shall any
State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war,
nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a
declaration of war by the United States in Congress
assembled, and then only against the Kingdom or State and
the subjects thereof, against which war has been so
declared, and under such regulations as shall be
established by the United States in Congress assembled,
unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case
vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and
kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the
United States in Congress assembled shall determine
otherwise. 

ARTICLE VII. When land forces are raised by any State for
the common defense, all officers of or under the rank of
colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each
State respectively, by whom such forces shall be raised,
or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all
vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made
the appointment. 

ARTICLE VIII. All charges of war, and all other expenses
that shall be incurred for the common defense or general
welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress
assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury,
which shall be supplied by the several States in
proportion to the value of all land within each State,
granted or surveyed for any person, as such land and the
buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated
according to such mode as the United States in Congress
assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint. 

The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and
levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures
of the several States within the time agreed upon by the
United States in Congress assembled. 

ARTICLE IX. The United States in Congress assembled, shall
have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining
on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the
sixth article — of sending and receiving ambassadors –
entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no
treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative
power of the respective States shall be restrained from
imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their
own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the
exportation or importation of any species of goods or
commodities whatsoever — of establishing rules for
deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water
shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or
naval forces in the service of the United States shall be
divided or appropriated — of granting letters of marque
and reprisal in times of peace — appointing courts for
the trial of piracies and felonies commited on the high
seas and establishing courts for receiving and determining
finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no
member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of
the said courts. 

The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the
last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now
subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two or more
States concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any other
causes whatever; which authority shall always be exercised
in the manner following. Whenever the legislative or
executive authority or lawful agent of any State in
controversy with another shall present a petition to
Congress stating the matter in question and praying for a
hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of
Congress to the legislative or executive authority of the
other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the
appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who
shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent,
commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing
and determining the matter in question: but if they cannot
agree, Congress shall name three persons out of each of
the United States, and from the list of such persons each
party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners
beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen;
and from that number not less than seven, nor more than
nine names as Congress shall direct, shall in the presence
of Congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose
names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be
commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the
controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who
shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination: and
if either party shall neglect to attend at the day
appointed, without showing reasons, which Congress shall
judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike,
the Congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out
of each State, and the secretary of Congress shall strike
in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the
judgement and sentence of the court to be appointed, in
the manner before prescribed, shall be final and
conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to
submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or
defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless
proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgement, which shall
in like manner be final and decisive, the judgement or
sentence and other proceedings being in either case
transmitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of
Congress for the security of the parties concerned:
provided that every commissioner, before he sits in
judgement, shall take an oath to be administered by one of
the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State,
where the cause shall be tried, 'well and truly to hear
and determine the matter in question, according to the
best of his judgement, without favor, affection or hope of
reward': provided also, that no State shall be deprived of
territory for the benefit of the United States. 

All controversies concerning the private right of soil
claimed under different grants of two or more States,
whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and
the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said
grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to
have originated antecedent to such settlement of
jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the
Congress of the United States, be finally determined as
near as may be in the same manner as is before presecribed
for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction
between different States. 

The United States in Congress assembled shall also have
the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the
alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or
by that of the respective States — fixing the standards
of weights and measures throughout the United States –
regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the
Indians, not members of any of the States, provided that
the legislative right of any State within its own limits
be not infringed or violated — establishing or regulating
post offices from one State to another, throughout all the
United States, and exacting such postage on the papers
passing through the same as may be requisite to defray the
expenses of the said office — appointing all officers of
the land forces, in the service of the United States,
excepting regimental officers — appointing all the
officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all
officers whatever in the service of the United States –
making rules for the government and regulation of the said
land and naval forces, and directing their operations. 

The United States in Congress assembled shall have
authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of
Congress, to be denominated 'A Committee of the States',
and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to
appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be
necessary for managing the general affairs of the United
States under their direction — to appoint one of their
members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to
serve in the office of president more than one year in any
term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of
money to be raised for the service of the United States,
and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the
public expenses — to borrow money, or emit bills on the
credit of the United States, transmitting every half-year
to the respective States an account of the sums of money
so borrowed or emitted — to build and equip a navy — to
agree upon the number of land forces, and to make
requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion
to the number of white inhabitants in such State; which
requisition shall be binding, and thereupon the
legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental
officers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in
a solid-like manner, at the expense of the United States;
and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped
shall march to the place appointed, and within the time
agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. But
if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on
consideration of circumstances judge proper that any State
should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number of
men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be
raised, officered, cloathed, armed and equipped in the
same manner as the quota of each State, unless the
legislature of such State shall judge that such extra
number cannot be safely spread out in the same, in which
case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm and equip as
many of such extra number as they judeg can be safely
spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, armed, and
equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within
the time agreed on by the United States in Congress
assembled. 

The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage
in a war, nor grant letters of marque or reprisal in time
of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor
coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain
the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and
welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit
bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United
States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number
of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number
of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a
commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine States
assent to the same: nor shall a question on any other
point, except for adjourning from day to day be
determined, unless by the votes of the majority of the
United States in Congress assembled. 

The Congress of the United States shall have power to
adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place
within the United States, so that no period of adjournment
be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and
shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly,
except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances
or military operations, as in their judgement require
secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each
State on any question shall be entered on the journal,
when it is desired by any delegates of a State, or any of
them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a
transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are
above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the
several States. 

ARTICLE X. The Committee of the States, or any nine of
them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of
Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United
States in Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine
States, shall from time to time think expedient to vest
them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said
Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of
Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of
the United States assembled be requisite. 

ARTICLE XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and
adjoining in the measures of the United States, shall be
admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this
Union; but no other colony shall be admitted into the
same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine States. 

ARTICLE XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed,
and debts contracted by, or under the authority of
Congress, before the assembling of the United States, in
pursuance of the present confederation, shall be deemed
and considered as a charge against the United States, for
payment and satisfaction whereof the said United States,
and the public faith are hereby solemnly pleged. 

ARTICLE XIII. Every State shall abide by the determination
of the United States in Congress assembled, on all
questions which by this confederation are submitted to
them. And the Articles of this Confederation shall be
inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be
perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter
be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed
to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards
confirmed by the legislatures of every State. 

And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the
World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we
respectively represent in Congress, to approve of, and to
authorize us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation
and perpetual Union. Know Ye that we the undersigned
delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us
given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name
and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and
entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said
Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union, and all and
singular the matters and things therein contained: And we
do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our
respective constituents, that they shall abide by the
determinations of the United States in Congress assembled,
on all questions, which by the said Confederation are
submitted to them. And that the Articles thereof shall be
inviolably observed by the States we respectively
represent, and that the Union shall be perpetual. In
Witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands in
Congress. 

DONE at Philadelphia, in the State of Pennfylvania, the
9th day of July, in the Year of our Lord 1778, and in the
third year of the independence of America. 

The aforefaid articles of confederation were finally
ratified on the firft day of March 1781; the state of
Maryland having, by their Members in Congrefs, on that day
acceded thereto, and completed the fame. 

New Hampshire: JOSIAH BARTLETT JOHN WENTWORTH, jun. 

Massachusetts Bay: JOHN HANCOCK SAMUEL ADAMS ELBRIDGE
GERRY FRANCIS DANA JAMES LOVELL SAMUEL HOLTEN 

Rhode Island and Providence Plantations: WILLIAM ELLERY
HENRY MARCHANT JOHN COLLINS 

Connecticut: ROGER SHERMAN SAMUEL HUNTINGTON OLIVER
WOLCOTT TITUS HOSMER ANDREW ADAMS 

New York : JAMES DUANE FRANCIS LEWIS WILLIAM DUER
GOVERNEUR MORRIS 

New Jersey: JOHN WITHERSPOON NATHANIEL SCUDDER 

Pennsylvania: ROBERT MORRIS DANIEL ROBERDEAU JOHN BAYARD
SMITH. WILLIAM CLINGAN JOSEPH REED

Delaware: THOMAS M'KEAN JOHN DICKINSON NICHOLAS VAN DYKE, 

Maryland: JOHN HANSON DANIEL CARROLL 

Virginia: RICHARD HENRY LEE JOHN BANISTER THOMAS ADAMS
JOHN HARVIE FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE 

N. Carolina: JOHN PENN CORNELIUS HARNETT JOHN WILLIAMS 

S. Carolina: HENRY LAURENS WILL HENRY DRAYTON JOHN MATHEWS
RICHARD HUTSON THOMAS HEYWARD jun.

Georgia: JOHN WALTON EDWARD TELFAIR EDWARD LONGWORTHY 

Appearing in a book entitled The Constitutions of the
Several Independent States of America, printed in London,
1783.