CSET Practice Test History Subtest I

Egyptian Civilization 

The origins of ancient Egyptian civilization, which many
regard as one of the fountainheads of Western culture,
cannot be established with certainty. Archaeological
evidence suggests that early dwellers in the Nile Valley
were influenced by cultures of the Near East, but the
degree of this influence is yet to be determined.
Describing the development of Egyptian civilization, like
attempts to identify its intellectual foundations, is
largely a process of conjecture based on archaeological
discoveries of enduring ruins, tombs, and monuments, many
of which contain invaluable specimens of the ancient
culture. Inscriptions in hieroglyphs, for instance, have
provided priceless data.

The framework for the study of the Dynastic period of
Egyptian history, between the 1st dynasty and the
Ptolemaic period, relies on the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, a
Ptolemaic priest of the 3rd century BC, who organized the
country's rulers into 30 dynasties, roughly corresponding
to families. General agreement exists on the division of
Egyptian history, up to the conquest of Alexander the
Great, into Old, Middle, and New kingdoms with
intermediate periods, followed by the late and Ptolemaic
periods, but chronology and genealogy are continually
being refined in light of new evidence and by the use of
increasingly sophisticated dating techniques.

Prehistory 

Some 60,000 years ago the Nile River began its yearly
inundation of the land along its banks, leaving behind
rich alluvial soil. Areas close to the floodplain became
attractive as a source of food and water. In time,
climatic changes, including periods of aridity, further
served to confine human habitation to the Nile Valley,
although this was not always true. From the Chalcolithic
period (the Copper age, beginning about 4000 BC) into the
early part of the Old Kingdom, people apparently used an
extended part of the land.

In the 7th millennium BC, Egypt was environmentally
hospitable, and evidence of settlements from that time has
been found in the low desert areas of southern, or Upper,
Egypt; remains of similar occupation have been discovered
at Nubian sites in modern Sudan. Enough pottery has been
found in Upper Egyptian tombs from the 4th millennium BC
(in the Predynastic period) to establish a relative dating
sequence. The Predynastic period, which ends with the
unification of Egypt under one king, is generally
subdivided into three parts, each of which refers to the
site at which its archaeological materials were found:
Badarian, Amratian (Naqada I), and Gerzean (Naqada II and
III). Northern sites (from about 5500 BC) have yielded
datable archaeological material of apparent cultural
continuity but no long-term sequences such as those found
in the south.

Early Dynastic (or Archaic) Period 

Archaeological sources indicate the emergence, by the late
Gerzean period (about 3200 BC), of a dominant political
force that was to become the consolidating element in the
first united kingdom of ancient Egypt. The earliest known
hieroglyphic writing dates from this period; soon the
names of early rulers began to appear on monuments. This
period began with a 0 Dynasty, which had as many as 13
rulers, ending with Narmer (about 3100 BC), followed by
the 1st and 2nd dynasties (about 3100-2755 BC), with at
least 17 kings. Some of the earliest massive mortuary
structures (predecessors of the pyramids) were built at
Šaqqarah, Abydos, and elsewhere during the 1st and 2nd
dynasties.

The Old Kingdom 

The Old Kingdom (about 2755-2255 BC) spanned five
centuries of rule by the 3rd through the 6th dynasties.
The capital was in the north, at Memphis, and the ruling
monarchs held absolute power over a strongly unified
government. Religion played an important role; in fact,
the government had evolved into a theocracy, wherein the
pharaohs, as the rulers were called, were both absolute
monarchs and, possibly, gods on earth.

A Golden Age 

The 3rd Dynasty was the first of the Memphite houses, and
its second ruler, Zoser, or Djoser, who reigned about
2737-2717 BC, emphasized national unity by balancing
northern and southern motifs in his mortuary buildings at
Šaqqarah. His architect, Imhotep, used stone blocks rather
than traditional mud bricks in the complex there, thus
creating the first monumental structure of stone; its
central element, the Step Pyramid, was Zoser's tomb. In
order to deal with affairs of state and to administer
construction projects, the king began to develop an
effective bureaucracy. In general, the 3rd Dynasty marked
the beginning of a golden age of cultural freshness and
vigor.

The 4th Dynasty began with King Snefru, whose building
projects included the first true pyramid at Dahshor (south
of Šaqqarah). Snefru, the earliest warrior king for whom
extensive documents remain, campaigned in Nubia and Libya
and was active in the Sinai. Promoting commerce and
mining, he brought prosperity to the kingdom. Snefru was
succeeded by his son Khufu (or Cheops), who built the
Great Pyramid at Giza. Although little else is known of
his reign, that monument not only attests to his power but
also indicates the administrative skills the bureaucracy
had gained. Khufu's son Redjedef, who reigned about 2613-
2603 BC, introduced the solar element (Ra, or Re) in the
royal titulary and the religion. Khafre (or Chephren),
another son of Khufu, succeeded his brother to the throne
and built his mortuary complex at Giza. The remaining
rulers of the dynasty included Menkaure, or Mycerinus, who
reigned about 2578-2553 BC; he is known primarily for the
smallest of the three large pyramids at Giza.

Under the 4th Dynasty, Egyptian civilization reached a
peak in its development, and this high level was generally
maintained in the 5th and 6th dynasties. The splendor of
the engineering feats of the pyramids was approximated in
every other field of endeavor, including architecture,
sculpture, painting, navigation, the industrial arts and
sciences, and astronomy; Memphite astronomers first
created a solar calendar based on a year of 365 days. Old
Kingdom physicians also displayed a remarkable knowledge
of physiology, surgery, the circulatory system of the
body, and antiseptics.

Beginning of Decline 

Although the 5th Dynasty maintained prosperity with
extensive foreign trade and military incursions into Asia,
signs of decreasing royal authority became apparent in the
swelling of the bureaucracy and the enhanced power of
nonroyal administrators. The last king of the dynasty,
Unas, who reigned about 2428-2407 BC, was buried at
Šaqqarah, with a body of religious spells, called Pyramid
Texts, carved on the walls of his pyramid chamber. Such
texts were also used in the royal tombs of the 6th
Dynasty. Several autobiographical inscriptions of
officials under the 6th Dynasty indicate the decreasing
status of the monarchy; records even indicate a conspiracy
against King Pepi I, who reigned about 2395-2360 BC, in
which the ruler's wife was involved. It is believed that
during the later years of Pepi II, who reigned about 2350-
2260 BC, power may have been in the hands of his vizier
(chief minister). Central authority over the economy was
also diminished by decrees of exemption from taxes. The
nomes (districts) were rapidly becoming individually
powerful, as the nomarchs-governors of the districts-were
beginning to remain in place rather than being
periodically transferred to different nomes.

First Intermediate Period 

The 7th Dynasty marked the beginning of the First
Intermediate period. As a consequence of internal strife,
the reigns of this and the succeeding 8th Dynasty are
rather obscure. It is clear, however, that both ruled from
Memphis and lasted a total of only 25 years. By this time
the powerful nomarchs were in effective control of their
districts, and factions in the south and north vied for
power. Under the Heracleopolitan 9th and 10th dynasties,
the nomarchs near Heracleopolis controlled their area and
extended their power north to Memphis (and even into the
delta) and south to Asyut (Lycopolis). The rival southern
nomarchs at Thebes established the 11th Dynasty,
controlling the area from Abydos to Elephantine, near
Syene (present-day Aswan). The early part of this dynasty,
the first of the Middle Kingdom, overlapped the last part
of the 10th.

The Middle Kingdom 

Without one centralized government, the bureaucracy was no
longer effective, and regional concerns were openly
championed. Egyptian art became more provincial, and no
massive mortuary complexes were built. The religion was
also democratized, as commoners claimed prerogatives
previously reserved for royalty alone. They could, for
instance, use spells derived from the royal Pyramid Texts
on the walls of their own coffins or tombs.

Reunification 

Although the Middle Kingdom (2134-1784 BC) is generally
dated to include all of the 11th Dynasty, it properly
begins with the reunification of the land by Mentuhotep
II, who reigned 2061-2010 BC. The early rulers of the
dynasty attempted to extend their control from Thebes both
northward and southward, but it was left to Mentuhotep to
complete the reunification process, sometime after 2047
BC. Mentuhotep ruled for more than 50 years, and despite
occasional rebellions, he maintained stability and control
over the whole kingdom. He replaced some nomarchs and
limited the power of the nomes, which was still
considerable. Thebes was his capital, and his mortuary
temple at Dayr al Ba‰rì incorporated both traditional and
regional elements; the tomb was separate from the temple,
and there was no pyramid.

The reign of the first 12th Dynasty king, Amenemhet I, was
peaceful. He established a capital near Memphis and,
unlike Mentuhotep, de-emphasized Theban ties in favor of
national unity. Nevertheless, the important Theban god
Amon was given prominence over other deities. Amenemhet
demanded loyalty from the nomes, rebuilt the bureaucracy,
and educated a staff of scribes and administrators. The
literature was predominantly propaganda designed to
reinforce the image of the king as a "good shepherd"
rather than as an inaccessible god. During the last ten
years of his reign, Amenemhet ruled with his son as co-
regent. "The Story of Sinuhe," a literary work of the
period, implies that the king was assassinated.

Amenemhet's successors continued his programs. His son,
Sesostris I, who reigned 1962-1928 BC, built fortresses
throughout Nubia and established trade with foreign lands.
He sent governors to Palestine and Syria and campaigned
against the Libyans in the west. Sesostris II, who reigned
1895-1878 BC, began land reclamation in Al Fayyum. His
successor, Sesostris III, who reigned 1878-1843 BC, had a
canal dug at the first cataract of the Nile, formed a
standing army (which he used in his campaign against the
Nubians), and built new forts on the southern frontier. He
divided the administration into three powerful geographic
units, each controlled by an official under the vizier,
and he no longer recognized provincial nobles. Amenemhet
III continued the policies of his predecessors and
extended the land reform.

A vigorous renaissance of culture took place under the
Theban kings. The architecture, art, and jewelry of the
period reveal an extraordinary delicacy of design, and the
time was considered the golden age of Egyptian literature.

Second Intermediate Period 

The rulers of the 13th Dynasty-some 50 or more in about
120 years-were weaker than their predecessors, although
they were still able to control Nubia and the
administration of the central government. During the
latter part of their rule, however, their power was
challenged not only by the rival 14th Dynasty, which won
control over the delta, but also by the Hyksos, who
invaded from western Asia. By the 13th Dynasty there was a
large Hyksos population in northern Egypt. As the central
government entered a period of decline, their presence
made possible an influx of people from coastal Phoenicia
and Palestine and the establishment of a Hyksos dynasty.
This marks the beginning of the Second Intermediate
period, a time of turmoil and disunity that lasted for
some 214 years. The Hyksos of the 15th Dynasty ruled from
their capital at Avaris in the eastern delta, maintaining
control over the middle and northern parts of the country.
At the same time, the 16th Dynasty also existed in the
delta and Middle Egypt, but it may have been subservient
to the Hyksos. More independence was exerted in the south
by a third contemporaneous power, the Theban 17th Dynasty,
which ruled over the territory between Elephantine and
Abydos. The Theban ruler Kamose, who reigned about 1576-
1570 BC, battled the Hyksos successfully, but it was his
brother, Ahmose I, who finally subdued them, reuniting
Egypt.

The New Kingdom 

With the unification of the land and the founding of the
18th Dynasty by Ahmose I, the New Kingdom (1570-1070 BC)
began. Ahmose reestablished the borders, goals, and
bureaucracy of the Middle Kingdom and revived its land-
reclamation program. He maintained the balance of power
between the nomarchs and himself with the support of the
military, who were accordingly rewarded. The importance of
women in the New Kingdom is illustrated by the high titles
and position of the royal wives and mothers.

The 18th Dynasty Kings 

Once Amenhotep I, who reigned 1551-1524 BC, had full
control over his administration-he was co-regent for five
years-he began to extend Egypt's boundaries in Nubia and
Palestine. A major builder at Karnak, Amenhotep, unlike
his predecessors, separated his tomb from his mortuary
temple; he began the custom of hiding his final resting
place. Thutmose I continued the advances of the new
Imperial Age and emphasized the preeminence of the god
Amon. His tomb was the first in the Valley of the Kings.
Thutmose II, his son by a minor wife, succeeded him,
marrying the royal princess Hatshepsut to strengthen his
claim to the throne. He maintained the accomplishments of
his predecessors. When he died in 1504 BC, his heir,
Thutmose III, was still a child, and so Hatshepsut
governed as a regent. Within a year, she had herself
crowned pharaoh, and then mother and son ruled jointly.
When Thutmose III achieved sole rule upon Hatshepsut's
death in 1483 BC, he reconquered Syria and Palestine,
which had broken away under joint rule, and then continued
to expand his empire. His annals in the temple at Karnak
chronicle many of his campaigns. Nearly 20 years after
Hatshepsut's death, he ordered the obliteration of her
name and images. Amenhotep II, who reigned 1453-1419 BC,
and Thutmose IV tried to maintain the Asian conquests in
the face of growing threats from the Mitanni and Hittite
states, but they found it necessary to use negotiations as
well as force.

Amenhotep III ruled peacefully for nearly four decades,
1386-1349 BC, and art and architecture flourished during
his reign. He maintained the balance of power among
Egypt's neighbors by diplomacy. His son and successor,
Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), was a religious reformer who
fought the power of the Amon priesthood. Akhenaton
abandoned Thebes for a new capital, Akhetaton (see Tall al
'Amarinah), which was built in honor of Aton, the disk of
the sun on which his monotheistic religion centered. The
religious revolution was abandoned toward the end of his
reign, however, and his son-in-law, Tutankhamen, returned
the capital to Thebes. Tutankhamen is known today chiefly
for his richly furnished tomb, which was found nearly
intact in the Valley of the Kings by the British
archaeologists Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon in 1922.
The 18th Dynasty ended with Horemheb, who reigned 1321-
1293 BC.

The Ramesside Period 

The founder of the 19th Dynasty, Ramses I, who reigned
1293-1291 BC, had served his predecessor as vizier and
commander of the army. Reigning only two years, he was
succeeded by his son, Seti I, who reigned 1291-1279 BC; he
led campaigns against Syria, Palestine, the Libyans, and
the Hittites. Seti built a sanctuary at Abydos. Like his
father, he favored the delta capital of Pi-Ramesse (now
Qantir). One of his sons, Ramses II, succeeded him and
reigned for nearly 67 years. He was responsible for much
construction at Luxor and Karnak, and he built the
Ramesseum (his funerary temple at Thebes), the rock-cut
temples at Abu Simbel, and sanctuaries at Abydos and
Memphis. After campaigns against the Hittites, Ramses made
a treaty with them and married a Hittite princess. His son
Merneptah, who reigned 1212-1202 BC, defeated the Sea
Peoples, invaders from the Aegean who swept the Middle
East in the 13th century BC, and records tell of his
desolating Israel. Later rulers had to contend with
constant uprisings by subject peoples of the empire.

The second ruler of the 20th Dynasty, Ramses III, had his
military victories depicted on the walls of his mortuary
complex at Medinet Habu, near Thebes. After his death the
New Kingdom declined, chiefly because of the rising power
of the priesthood of Amon and the army. One high priest
and military commander even had himself depicted in royal
regalia.

Third Intermediate Period 

The 21st through the 24th dynasties are known as the Third
Intermediate period. Kings ruling from Tanis, in the
north, vied with a line of high priests, to whom they
appear to be related, from Thebes, in the south. The
rulers of the 21st Dynasty may have been partially Libyan
in ancestry, and the 22nd Dynasty began with Libyan
chieftains as kings. As the Libyans' rule deteriorated,
several rivals rose to challenge them. In fact the next
two dynasties, the 23rd and 24th, were contemporaneous
with part of the 22nd Dynasty, just as the 25th (Kushite)
Dynasty effectively controlled much of Egypt during the
latter years of the 22nd and the 24th dynasties.

Late Period 

The 25th through the 31st dynasties ruled Egypt during the
time that has come to be known as the Late Period. The
Kushites ruled from about 767 BC until they were ousted by
the Assyrians in 671 BC. Native rule was reestablished
early in the 26th Dynasty by Psamtik I. A resurgence of
cultural achievement, reminiscent of earlier epochs,
reached its height in the 26th Dynasty. When the last
Egyptian king was defeated by Cambyses II in 525 BC, the
country entered a period of Persian domination under the
27th Dynasty. Egypt reasserted its independence under the
28th and 29th dynasties, but the 30th Dynasty was the last
one of native rulers. The 31st Dynasty, which is not
listed in Manetho's chronology, represented the second
Persian domination.

The Hellenistic and Roman Periods 

The occupation of Egypt by the forces of Alexander the
Great in 332 BC brought an end to Persian rule. Alexander
appointed Cleomenes of Naucratis, a Greek resident in
Egypt, and his Macedonian general, known later as Ptolemy
I, to govern the country. Although two Egyptian governors
were named as well, power was clearly in the hands of
Ptolemy, who in a few years took absolute control of the
country.

The Ptolemaic Dynasty 

Rivalries with other generals, who carved out sections of
Alexander's empire after his death in 323 BC, occupied
much of Ptolemy's time, but in 305 BC he assumed the royal
title and founded the dynasty that bears his name (see
Ptolemaic Dynasty). Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the great
powers of the Hellenistic world, and at various times it
extended its rule over parts of Syria, Asia Minor, Cyprus,
Libya, Phoenicia, and other lands.

Partly because native Egyptian rulers had a reduced role
in affairs of state during the Ptolemaic regime, they
periodically demonstrated their dissatisfaction by open
revolts, all of which were, however, quickly suppressed.
In the reign of Ptolemy VI, Egypt became a protectorate
under Antiochus IV of Syria, who successfully invaded the
country in 169 BC. The Romans, however, forced Antiochus
to give up the country, which was then divided between
Ptolemy VI and his younger brother, Ptolemy VIII; the
latter took full control upon the death of his brother in
145 BC.

The succeeding Ptolemies preserved the wealth and status
of Egypt while continually losing territory to the Romans.
Cleopatra VII was the last great ruler of the Ptolemaic
line. In an attempt to maintain Egyptian power she aligned
herself with Julius Caesar and, later, Mark Antony, but
these moves only postponed the end. After her forces were
defeated by Roman legions under Octavian (later Emperor
Augustus), Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 BC.

Roman and Byzantine Rule 

For nearly seven centuries after the death of Cleopatra,
the Romans controlled Egypt (except for a short time in
the 3rd century AD, when it came under the power of Queen
Zenobia of Palmyra). They treated Egypt as a valuable
source of wealth and profit and were dependent on its
supply of grain to feed their multitudes. Roman Egypt was
governed by a prefect, whose duties as commander of the
army and official judge were similar to those of the
pharaohs of the past. The office, therefore, was one with
which the native population was familiar. Because of the
immense power of the prefects, however, their functions
were eventually divided under Emperor Justinian, who in
the 6th century AD put the army under a separate
commander, directly responsible to him.

Egypt in the Roman period was relatively peaceful; its
southern boundary at Aswan was only rarely attacked by the
Ethiopians. Egypt's population had become Hellenized under
the Ptolemies, and it included large minorities of Greeks
and Jews, as well as other peoples from Asia Minor. The
mixture of the cultures did not lead to a homogeneous
society, and civil strife was frequent. In 212, however,
Emperor Caracalla granted the entire population
citizenship in the Roman Empire.

Alexandria, the port city on the Mediterranean founded by
Alexander the Great, remained the capital as it had been
under the Ptolemies. One of the great metropolises of the
Roman Empire, it was the center of a thriving commerce
between India and Arabia and the Mediterranean countries.
It was the home of the great Alexandrian library and
museum and had a population of some 300,000 (excluding
slaves).

Egypt became an economic mainstay of the Roman Empire not
only because of its annual harvest of grain but also for
its glass, metal, and other manufactured products. In
addition, the trade brought in spices, perfumes, precious
stones, and rare metals from the Red Sea ports. Once part
of the empire, Egypt was subject to a variety of taxes as
well.

In order to control the people and placate the powerful
priesthood, the Roman emperors protected the ancient
religion, completed or embellished temples begun under the
Ptolemies, and had their own names inscribed on them as
pharaohs; the cartouches of several can be found at Isna,
Kawn Umbu, Dandara, and Philae. The Egyptian cults of Isis
and Serapis spread throughout the ancient world. Egypt was
also an important center of early Christendom and the
first one of Christian monasticism. Its Coptic or
Monophysite church separated from mainstream Christianity
in the 5th century.

Civil War Reconstruction Plan

The year 1865 represented the last days of the
Confederacy. The larger and better-equipped Union forces
had successfully enforced a blockade on Confederate States
via land and sea. Federal troops had either occupied or
destroyed all of the major industrial areas, which caused
starvation and riots against the Confederate government.
On March 20, 1865, the Southern government resorted to
arming the slaves in a last ditch effort to equalize the
manpower disadvantage. 

Union General William Sherman's army took Atlanta and
marched northward through the Carolinas leaving a trail of
destruction in its wake. Confederate General Lee was
forced to surrender one of the last main rebel armies at
Appomatox on April 9, 1865. General Johnston surrendered
to Sherman on April 18 and the remaining Confederate
forces surrendered to General Canby at Citronelle, Alabama
and in New Orleans. In the meantime, President Abraham
Lincoln was assassinated at Ford's Theater on April 14
while enjoying a production of "Our American Cousin". Vice
President Andrew Johnson succeeded to the presidency. 

There were two major issues to be resolved once the
Confederacy had been defeated: 

1) Were the rebel States still a part of the United
States? 

2) Was the president or the Congress responsible for
Reconstruction? 

Former President Lincoln had always claimed that these
eleven states had never left the Union. In 1862 he had
appointed provisional governors in Louisiana, North
Carolina and Tennessee. As early as December 8, 1863, he
had already announced a plan of Reconstruction: 

1) Amnesty to all Southerners who would take an oath of
loyalty 

2) Recognition of state governments where 10% of the pre-
war electorate took the oath and renounced slavery. 

Louisiana and Arkansas took these steps in 1864, but
Congress refused to let their representatives sit in the
House. President Johnson adopted Lincoln's plan and
recognized the loyal governments in Arkansas, Louisiana,
Tennessee and Virginia, which Lincoln had set up. By
December of 1865, every Confederate State except Texas had
taken the steps. Texas conformed on April 6, 1866 and on
December 6, President Johnson announced to Congress that
the Union was restored. 

Congress, however, refused to endorse what Johnson had
done. A joint committee of six senators and nine
representatives was formed instead to oversee the
management of the former Confederacy. The committee
considered the confederate states to be "conquered
provinces" and they were effectively put under the
trusteeship of Congress. 

On December 18th, the 13th Amendment, abolishing slavery,
was ratified by 27 states and formally proclaimed.
However, a New Freedmen's Bureau had to be set up on Feb.
19, 1866 in order to protect freed slaves from the harsh
"Black Codes" being enacted in some states. These Black
Codes effectively tied the freed slaves to the land, on
which they lived and worked. 

Later that year, April 9, Congress passed a Civil Rights
Act that bestowed citizenship on Afro-Americans. The Act
granted the same civil rights to all persons born in
America (except Indians). Johnson vetoed the bill because
he said that it infringed on the rights of those states
that were not represented in the House. The Act was passed
over Johnson's veto but the Supreme Court ruled that the
Act was unconstitutional. 

The Joint Committee then formulated the 14th Amendment to
the Constitution in order to get around the apparent
unconstitutionality of the Civil Rights Bill. It passed
Congress on the 13th of June and was submitted to the
states for ratification. The Amendment defined American
citizenship and included Afro-Americans. It provided
Federal protection to freedmen whose rights could not now
be limited by state governments. Ratification was denied
by most of the southern states but was made a requirement
for readmission into the Union. Tennessee accepted the
amendment but the other southern states awaited the
upcoming congressional elections and possibly a more
sympathetic congress. 

Johnson's republicans captured a two-thirds majority in
both houses, giving the Republican Radicals control over
Reconstruction. This was Johnson's party, but these
radicals were much more antagonistic towards the South
than he. On March 2, 1867, Congress passed the First
Reconstruction Act over Johnson's veto. Martial law was
declared over the former confederate states, which were
divided into five regions. 

The new requirements for states to be re-admitted to the
Union were ratification of the 14th amendment and
universal suffrage guaranteeing that Afro-Americans would
be given the right and opportunity to vote. In the Omnibus
Act, June 22-25, 1868, seven states met the requirements
and were readmitted to the Union. These were Arkansas,
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina and
South Carolina. Georgia soon returned to military rule
when all of the Afro-American representatives were
dismissed from the state legislature. It was allowed to
return to self-rule only when the state ratified the
Fifteenth Amendment, guaranteeing equality for the freed
slaves, and allowed the Afro-Americans to return to the
house. 

Despite being vetoed by the Congress, Johnson faithfully
executed their decisions. He appointed military commanders
who led 20,000 troops (including Afro-American militia)
into the South. Governments that he had previously set up
were displaced. 703,000 Afro-Americans and 627,000 whites
were registered as voters. In Alabama, Florida, Louisiana,
Mississippi and South Carolina, black voters were in the
majority. In other states, a black-white coalition formed
under the Radical banner. Southern whites allied with the
Radicals were called "scalawags". Northerners who went
south to assist in Reconstruction were called
"carpetbaggers". 

Meanwhile, Radicals in the Congress were consistently
overriding Johnson's vetoes and placed some important
limitations on his Executive power. Johnson was prevented
from naming judges to the Supreme Court and deprived of
being the "Commander in Chief" of the armed forces. The
Covode Resolution of February 24, 1868 passed in the House
by a vote of 126-47 and called for the impeachment of the
President. The charges included alleged violations of the
Tenure of Office Act, the Command of the Army Act and with
bringing disgrace upon Congress. The impeachment vote,
however did not arrive at the required two thirds
majority. 

The Supreme Court played a huge role in determining the
legality and constitutionality of many of the laws that
were passed during Reconstruction. The court decided that
it was unconstitutional to set up martial law where civil
courts were in operation. In Texas vs. White, 1869, the
court upheld Lincoln's position that the Union was
indivisible and indissoluble. The court also decided that
the loyalty oaths were wrong and invalidated them. 

Source: Gerry Berard